Lesson 15: American Expansion Overseas

Objectives understand the causes and outcome of the Spanish-American War know the effects of the Monroe Doctrine learn about American policy in the Pacific know how the U.S. annexed Hawaii learn about U.S. imperialism

By the early 1900s, America and other European powers were establishing control over countries and territories all around the world in an era called the "New Imperialism." Before 1898, United States' possessions included Alaska and the Midway Islands. After the Spanish-American War in 1898, Puerto Rico, Wake Island, and the Philippines came under United States control. By the early 1900s, France, the Netherlands, and Japan had also recently acquired colonies.

Spanish-American War America's rise to world power began around the beginning of the twentieth century with the Spanish-American War of 1898. Spain was on the verge of losing colonies within its empire, and America was prepared to take advantage this situation. The Spanish-American war was the result of two forces. First, the island of Cuba off the Florida coast was a Spanish territory and wanted its independence. Secondly, the American ship U.S.S. Maine was sunk in 1898, probably as a result of an accidental explosion of gunpowder barrels. Popular opinion at the time blamed Spain, although their responsibility has not actually been determined. In 1895, Cubans had revolted against Spanish rule because of the long-promised reforms that Spain failed to carry out. Spain responded to these revolts with violence and took total control of the country. As a result, Cuba ended up in a worse situation than it had been in prior to the revolts. American newspapers, such as the New York Journal and the New York World, actively supported the Cuban revolutionaries by creating a propagandacampaign that advocated aiding them in their fight against Spain. Publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer printed sensational stories because of the sales generated by their popularity. The stories began to generate sympathy from the American people for the Cubans, and President William McKinley ordered the battleship Maine into the Havana harbor to check on the conflict. McKinley strongly opposed the war, but when the Maine exploded and sank in the Cuban harbor, he was forced to consider it. Americans had died on the ship, and the public believed that the Spanish were responsible. Headlines in American newspapers promoted the U.S. involvement in the war. A popular war slogan emerged in the U.S.: “Remember The Maine! To hell with Spain!” On April 25, 1898, after accusing Spain of deliberately attackingThe Maine, the United States declared war. The most noted battle of this war occurred near the city of Santiago. Teddy Roosevelt and his Rough Riders became famous during the Battle of San Juan Hill. The Rough Riders charged up the hill, inflicting a number of casualties. Roosevelt's image as a rugged war hero stems from his success in this battle. By taking sides in the Spanish-Cuban conflict, the United States turned away from its policy of neutrality, or goal of remaining impartial in international disputes. The war was relatively short, lasting only 113 days, and ended with the Treaty of Paris. The United States was the undeniable winner. Spain was forced to give up many territories to U.S. control, including Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The U.S. also annexed Hawaii during this period. Expansionists, people who wanted the United States to extend its influence and power through overseas possessions, were happy with the results of the war. However, the expansion of overseas territories and colonies required the construction of Navy coaling stations throughout the world. The U.S. had much work to do to establish bases which would support this expansion. The new U.S. policy of intervening in the affairs of their neighboring countries violated it's earlier policy of "territorial integrity," which is the idea that no nation may aggressively take another nation's land. In keeping with the philosophy popular at the time—that the United States should act as a “parent” and guide and protect its less developed neighbors—America essentially took over some countries after the Spanish-American War. These countries were called protectorates—meaning weaker countries taken under supervision by stronger ones.

America and Latin America When the U.S. obtained new territories as a result of the Treaty of Paris, it needed to build military bases to secure these new possessions around the world. The Philippines was not a territory America was really prepared to deal with; it had no real understanding of the national culture of the Philippines. However, because of the Treaty of Paris, America now had control over this country. The U.S. also acquired Puerto Rico as a result of the Treaty of Paris. The relationship with this territory ended up being quite stable. Puerto Ricans became United States citizens as a result of the Jones Act, which was passed by Congress in 1917. The Jones Act established a Senate and House of Representatives modeled on the U.S. system. Puerto Rico was also given the right to elect its own governor. After Puerto Rico ratified its constitution in 1952, it became a self-governing commonwealth. Cuba, another territory given up by Spain in the treaty, was eager to gain independence when it was turned over to the U.S. Although this did not happen for some time, power was handed over to the Cuban government with some restrictions named in the Platt Amendment. The Platt Amendment, passed by Congress in 1901, allowed the United States to intervene in Cuban affairs. Cuba was technically independent and self-governing, but it was still under America’s eye, which would come to cause problems in the future. The U.S. needed control over certain territories so that it could protect its new acquisitions in Latin America. The U.S. presence in Panama is an instance of this. In the early 1850s, the U.S. wanted a treaty with Panama that would allow for the building of a canal across the narrow nation. This canal would allow quick passage from the Atlantic (via the Caribbean Sea) to the Pacific ocean, useful for both military and trade purposes. In the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, signed by Great Britain and the U.S. in 1850, the two nations agreed on terms for a jointly-run canal in Panama. In 1901, this treaty was superseded by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, which allowed the United States exclusive rights over the construction and regulation of the canal, with the understanding that all nations would have equal rights to its use. The Panama Canal cost the United States approximately $400 million. In order to build the Panama Canal, the United States supported a Panamanian rebellion which established the territory as a separate country from Columbia. The rebellion was a success, and on November 4, 1903, the new Panamanian government took control of the country. Two days after this, the U.S. recognized Panama’s independence. A treaty was signed between the new government and the U.S., allowing for the construction of the canal. The canal remained in U.S. hands until 1999, when as part of a 1977 agreement, it was transferred over to Panamanian control. Construction of the Panama Canal (1904-1914) was largely a success, despite diseases such as malaria and yellow fever which threatened the workers (the Army Corps of Engineers). Yellow Fever had been somewhat controlled by the vaccination developed by Walter Reed in 1900.

Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine, established in 1823 during President James Monroe’s second term in office, informed European powers that the United States did not want European powers to attempt to colonize the American continents. If they did, America would view the action as dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States. The first serious test of the Monroe Doctrine came in the French occupation of Mexico in 1863. Other than this incident, the Monroe Doctrine held European powers at bay. Roosevelt added to the policy of the Monroe Doctrine during his presidency. The United States did not want the Canal threatened by European powers owed money by Caribbean nations. Rather than have them collect their money by force, the United States acted as an international police force to keep law and order in the area and made sure that the Latin American nations fulfilled their financial obligations. This idea is known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The United States continued to become involved in the affairs of Central and Latin America. The United States said it intervened in Latin America to protect American citizens and property, the Panama Canal, and Latin American independence. Many felt that the United States was close to crossing the line of direct imperialism over this region as in the policies in Latin America throughout President Taft’s administration (1909-1913): the term “Dollar Diplomacy” was the name given to the process under which America gained influence over Latin American nations through investments and loans. In an attempt to decrease direct U.S. involvement, President Woodrow Wilson chose a policy of "watchful waiting" and non-intervention in dealing with the violent Huerta episode in Mexico. Victoriano Huerta was a military officer who overthrew and killed Mexican liberator and President Francisco Madero in 1913. Throughout Huerta’s brutal two year presidency, the United States did nothing to stop him, although he was eventually forced into exile. The “ABC Powers” (Argentina, Brazil, and Chile) helped mediate the Huerta episode by arranging a conference in 1915 between Mexican leaders and U.S. leaders. This conference ended by urging Huerta to retire from his position, leaving Venustiano Carranza in power. The U.S. recognized Carranza as the leader of Mexico. American involvement in the Caribbean and Latin America grew to such an extent that the Caribbean Sea was sometimes called "an American lake." Roosevelt started many of the policies there with his "Big Stick" policy, which meant the United States did not hesitate to use force to accomplish its purposes in Latin America, regardless of the feelings of the nations involved.

America, Hawaii, and Policy in the Pacific America needed naval bases in the Pacific, so it turned its attention to Hawaii. American companies also wanted to control Hawaii's lucrative sugar market. Hawaiians did not want to be annexed by the U.S., but in 1893, the government of Queen Liliuokalani, the ruler of Hawaii, was overthrown by U.S.- aided rebels and a new regime was established with Sanford Dole as president. The U.S. Minister to Hawaii officially recognized this government and proclaimed Hawaii a U.S. protectorate on February 1, 1893. The new government, backed by the U.S., wanted the United States to annex Hawaii and make it a state. A presidential commission was created to investigate the situation. They found that American business groups had started the revolution in Hawaii, pushing for the overthrow of the current government and the establishment of one that was more sympathetic to their interests. When all of this came to light, President Cleveland sent a new U.S. Minister to the islands to remove Dole and restore the previous government to power. Dole, however, refused to step down. To avoid conflict, President Cleveland recognized the new government, but refused to annex the territory. Hawaii became, for the time being, a protectorate of the United States. In 1897, when William McKinley became president, he negotiated a new treaty that proposed annexing Hawaii. The treaty was not ratified for over a year due to opposition by Democrats and anti-imperialists in Congress. When the strategic importance of the Pearl Harbor naval base was shown during the Spanish-American War, Congress quickly approved the annexation of Hawaii. The islands were then given territorial status in 1900 and became the 50th state in 1959. The American government also achieved new status in East Asia during the late 19th century. John Hay came up with the “Open Door” Policy that would allow all nations equal trading rights in China. Trade with China was crucial to western economies that bought valued Chinese goods and materials like porcelain and tea. America asserted its power in Chinese trade. Japan, which had been secluded from the Western world for many years, opened its ports at the end of the 19th century, increasing commercial opportunities for the Japanese and Westerners. Japan’s policy of isolation ended in 1854 as a result of a treaty negotiated by Commodore Perry on a visit by an American naval expedition. The treaty allowed certain ports to be opened to American ships for supply stops and limited trade. Because of this, Americans had stakes in the Russo-Japanese War fought between Japan and Russia in the early 20th century. The Japanese fought to win control of Manchuria. The war ended in 1905 and the Open Door Policy remained intact for Japan, leaving the American government at ease.