Objectives
- learn about the growth of labor unions
- identify immigrant groups and their contributions to society
- understand the hardships that farmers faced
- know of the growth of technology and cities
Industrialization profoundly effected this country. As industrialization increased and more people moved to the city to work in factories, animosity grew between workers and management. Many workers organized themselves to bargain for rights on the job in the labor movement.
Workers in the late 1800's worked in terrible conditions and earned very little money. Businesses made a lot of money but could pay workers a low wage because of the surplus of cheap labor. Most immigrants to this country were willing to do any kind of work that they could find.
Eventually, laborers grew tired of being controlled and feeling exploited and became motivated to organize labor groups. The various labor groups had different standards for fair conditions, wages, and hours. These groups became known as unions, workers alliances who organized and collectively bargained for wages and rights. Separate unions often worked together as a bloc to get policies through the government regarding workers’ rights. Unions had the voting power to sway elections, so politicians were eager to help them fight for their demands.
Samuel Gompers was the founder of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), the most important labor organization in the United States at the turn of the century. The AFL was the first large successful labor movement that was able to last, leading others on the path of organizing for action. In many instances, workers and unions would strike if their demands were not met.
There were other ways of negotiating to end harsh conditions. For example, the Knights of Labor preferred not to get involved in strikes, but instead settled their disputes through arbitration.
Cultural differences within the workplace added to the tension between labor and industry. Between 1870 and 1899, over 11 million immigrants poured into the United States to find work. Before the early 1880's, these immigrants were from northwestern Europe from countries like Great Britain, Ireland, and Germany. After 1890, immigrants came from eastern Europe from countries like Russia, Greece, Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
With the new employment opportunities provided by factories in the Northeast, women and children went to work for extra money. Prior to this, women and children would usually work in the home, perhaps doing sewing or shoemaking on consignment with a store. But with the mechanization of these trades, finding work that way was increasingly difficult. In the factories, women and children frequently endured harsh labor conditions. Because of their work, women were well-represented in the first labor unions. Groups like the International Ladies Garment Workers Union, led by Rose Schneiderman and Leona O’Reilly, gained respect in the labor community, in society, and in government.
Schneiderman joined the labor movement after realizing that men were being promoted over women at the factory where she worked. She soon became friends with a coworker named Bessie Braut who taught her about activism, unionism, and feminism. Building a reputation as a strong leader in her own factory, she became very active in the movement as a whole.
Many early labor unions included African Americans in their movements, but later African Americans were excluded from many union groups. Under president Uriah S. Stephens, the Knights of Labor accepted black laborers into the union without discrimination in the 1880's.
The National Labor Union, with William Sylvis, became involved in a number of major issues like labor and social reform. Their crowning achievement helped institute regulations for the 8-hour workday.
Eugene V. Debs
Eugene V. Debs worked with the American Railway Union. He led a famous strike against the Pullman Palace Car Company that led him to notoriety as a unionist. He defied court orders prohibiting him from joining a railroad worker strike and was known as a renegade in the labor union community.
Labor unions were not always respected in mainstream America. In the 1880's, the Haymarket Affair turned violent when workers in Chicago’s Haymarket Square fought with one another. Ironically, the protesters were speaking out against violence that had occurred during earlier strikes.
Currency
The medium of exchange in this country was not always paper dollars and metal coins--the debate over how money would be made was an important political issue at the end of the 19th century. An example of this is the debate over bullion, which is uncoined metal. The role of silver bullion was one of the biggest money questions of this period.
The Greenback Party was formed when neither Republicans nor Democrats would help farmers with their mounting debts. Greenbacks also refers to a type of currency--the paper bills distributed after the Civil War. This party fought to get more paper bills into circulation in the U.S. since the gold standard was gradually going out of use. Their platform was popular enough to elect 14 members to Congress in 1878, but in subsequent elections their popularity sharply declined.
Even though the success of the Greenback Party was short-lived, farmers had learned the value of organizing to send a message to government. In turn, the two major parties, Democratic and Republican, also learned their dominance could be challenged by a minor party in Congress.
The two major parties faced challenge again in 1892 by the Populists, a group in favor of creating rights for middle class citizens. They believed that the government only cared about what happened on Wall Street, and had forgotten about the common people. With support from industrial wage earners and farmers, the Populist platform demanded:
- government ownership of railroad, telegraph, and telephone lines
- a graduated income tax
- increased coinage of silver
Like the Greenbacks, the Populists were defeated in the election, but gained seats in Congress for a time.
In 1895, the U.S. was dangerously low on gold, with only $41 million left. To offset inflation, America had to consider going off the gold standard. President Cleveland accepted a loan of gold in exchange for government bonds from a group of bankers, headed by J.P. Morgan. Many people were angry about the loan, saying again that the government was too closely allied with Wall Street.
In this period, there were all kinds of terms for money. There was “cheap money,” which was unlimited coinage to increase the nation’s money supply. “Tight money” referred to a limited supply of money. “Sound money” represented the gold-standard. The arguments over money in this country often took place between those favoring bimetallism, a policy under which gold and silver secured the nation’s economy, and those favoring the use of paper money. Money was a hot political issue in the 1896 presidential election. William McKinley ran on the Republican ticket, representing “sound money.” The Democratic Party, which favored with “cheap money,” nominated William Jennings Bryan. McKinley won by almost 100 electoral votes, but only 500,000 popular votes.
A wide cross-section of people participated in the arguments over currency. American farmers' unique situation caused them to view the money issue differently. Because money was not their only medium of exchange, farmers often had a rough time financially. Many farmers were mostly self-sufficient, but they had difficulty getting financial aid when they needed it. They began to form cooperatives, associations managed by farmers, so that they could sell their crops without creating a monopoly.
The short supply of money was only one element of the financial troubles farmers faced. Farmers were always in debt, because they borrowed money to buy livestock, feed, barns, machinery, and land. The debt became formidable as farmers' products began yielding smaller and smaller profits. They could not sell enough to get out of debt.
The 1880's are sometimes called "the decade of mortgages" Of all U.S. farms during that time period, 43% were mortgaged. Worsening farmers' indebtedness, interest rates rose from 8% to 20% in the late 1880's. Overproduction, “tight” money, and high interest rates were major problems facing the western farmer.
Farmers and small business owners also joined together to fight against abuse by railroads. Shipping arrangements, called "long-haul, short-haul abuse" in which railroad shipping rates were cheaper over long distances than over short distances, kept prices high. Also, special favors, like rebates, were frequently given to large corporations by the government. The Interstate Commerce Act of 1886 was designed to stop a number of these procedures by the railroads.
Farmers and small businesses were not the only ones affected by the big railroads. During this time period, Chinese immigrants were allowed into the U.S. without restrictions, but they were paid low wages for their labor. Chinese railroad workers were often referred to as “Gandy Dancers” because they supplied much labor to build rails using products from the Gandy Manufacturing Company.
Many farmers lost their ability to support themselves individually. The major problem was overproduction--too much wheat, corn, cotton, and other crops were grown. Overproduction brought about falling prices and growing distress.
Increasingly, the farmers were at the mercy of forces over which they had no control, such as the railroads that carried their goods to market, prices for their goods fixed in distant markets, and the supply of money made available by the federal government.
As they faced these problems, farmers began to organize new political parties and attempted to increase their power in the old parties to influence in the state and federal governments. They sought the passage of laws that would regulate the railroad, the powerful industries, and other areas of the economic system, and in so doing make life easier and more rewarding for the farmers.
The farmers were particularly outraged by the conduct of the railroads. The farmers had welcomed them at first, believing they would open distant markets to them and would increase the value of farmland by bringing more farmers into the community.
Getting Cultured
This period in history is also marked by cultural developments as artists, writers, entertainers, volunteers, and scholars helped shape American society. Mary Baker Eddy, for example, founded the Christian Science religion. P.T. Barnum started a tent circus in Brooklyn in 1871 that he called “the greatest show on earth" (today it’s known as Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey’s Circus). Another legacy of the late 1800's was the American Red Cross. Clara Barton organized the Red Cross, which has become one of the biggest non-profit organizations in America, providing disaster relief world-wide.
There were also some important “firsts” in this period. For example, the first professional baseball team, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, formed in 1869. Baseball, football, and basketball were the major spectator sports in the last part of the 19th century. New efforts in education included the philosophy of “learning by doing,” advocated by John Dewey in the 1890's.
At the 1893 World’s Fair in Chicago, public interest in architecture intensified. Louis L. Sullivan’s Transformation Building marked a new architectural trend known as “form follows function.” This style, founded by Sullivan, was continued by such architects as Frank Lloyd Wright. This philosophy proposes that a well-designed building has a distinct style and uses materials perfectly suited to the purposes of the building.
Many great works of literature appeared during the late 19th century. One particularly popular genre was “local-color” literature. “Local-color” writers described life in various parts of America. Mark Twain's work exemplifies this. He described life on the Mississippi in such books as The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. Twain was also the author of The Gilded Age, which is what historians now call this period in American history. Two other "local color" writers were Bret Harte, who created realistic stories of Western mining camps, and Hamlin Garlin, who captured the beauty and turmoil of western farm life in Main-Traveled Roads.
Other famous writers of the time include Edith Wharton, whose stories about the “well-to–do” appealed to the masses. Wharton was friends with another literary giant, Henry James, who was a master of the psychological novel and an important literary innovator. Edward Bellamy wrote about a futuristic, ideal America. Other authors wrote “dime novels,” which were Wild West stories. These highly romantic and sentimental novels sold in paperback for 10 cents.
Journalists were powerful influences during this time, and writers were called “Titans of the Press.” Charles A. Dana, Joseph Pulitzer, and William Randolph Hearst were all leaders of journalism in their day.
Beginning of the Progressive Movement
The Progressive Movement began at the end of the 19th century, and with it came groups who actively pursued a better and more just United States. The movement for women’s suffrage continued, as it had for years and years. Lucy Stone launched the American Woman Suffrage Association during this period, and the National Woman Suffrage Association was founded by Elizabeth Cady Stanton.
One frustration of the movement for women’s rights was that it didn’t have one clear perspective or goal; there were conflicting views of “rights” and “responsibilities” within this movement, a significant sector of which focused on issues of moral reform. A woman named Frances Xavier established schools, homes, and orphanages in many Italian-American communities, while others worked to stop the sale and abuse of alcohol through temperance. While some thought women should be responsible for the morality of their families and nations, others believed in a purer version of equality.
This equality of the sexes argument continues today. An event that may have helped fuel the fire for women to fight for equality is the Chautauqua Movement, which was a gathering of thousands of people in one place to hear the lectures of famous men.
One of the most important and influential people in the area of social change was Jane Addams. She devoted her life to helping improve the lives of the poor by establishing Hull House in Chicago in 1889. Providing care and schooling for the children of working mothers and recreational facilities for youth were only a few of her notable accomplishments with Hull House. Addams also passionately fought corrupt politicians and incompetent officials on every issue affecting the poor. Her accomplishments in social work have been copied throughout U.S. cities since the early 1900's.
In 1896, the Supreme Court legitimized the concept of "separate but equal" public facilities for blacks with its decision in Plessy v. Ferguson. This, combined with Jim Crow laws on the books in most Southern states, forced blacks to lead lives that were largely separate from whites.
Development of Urban Life
The greatest influence on the transformation of the United States was in the growth and development of the cities. One reason for the city's influence in all aspects of American life was that cities were the great centers of industry, which came into being as a result of increasing scientific and technological advancements. Another reason was that the cities offered opportunity to the millions from rural and small town areas, as well as to the shiploads of immigrants from Europe. Here was the opportunity for adventure; here was a chance to win fame and fortune.
Change swept through almost every aspect of American life. Education began to meet the needs of the new industrial society as technical schools sprang up and courses in natural sciences and industrial arts were included in many curricula. Newspapers and magazines were published in large quantities, and journalism became big business. Architecture, art, literature, and recreation also reflected urban trends, ranging from towering skyscrapers to realistic writings to a rapid development of spectator sports, including baseball, football, and basketball.
For many years the rural areas in America weren't as affected by industrialization as the cities. Gradually the differences between rural and urban life decreased, and people began to see in the new age possibilities for a fuller and more satisfying life.
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