Vocabulary

Glossary
13th Amendment	Amendment to the Constitution that abolished slavery. (Lesson 10)
14th Amendment	Declared blacks citizens and guaranteed equal protection under the law. (Lesson 10)
15th Amendment	Gave all male citizens the right to vote. (Lesson 10)
abolitionist	A person in favor of the elimination of slavery. (Lesson 10)
Alien and Sedition Acts	Acts passed by the Federalists to suppress dissent and weaken Jefferson’s Republican Party. (Lesson 7)
American System	An integrated economic program advocated by Henry Clay, calling for tariffs, a national bank, and federal transportation projects. (Lesson 7)
Amistad	Spanish slave ship on which the slaves rebelled, sailed the ship to New York, and won their freedom. (Lesson 8)
annex	To incorporate an existing state or nation into another. (Lesson 9)
antebellum	Literally meaning “before the war”, usually referring to the period before the Civil War. (Lesson 8)
Appomattox Courthouse	The site in Virginia where, on April 9, 1865, General Lee surrendered to General Grant, ending the Civil War. (Lesson 10)
arable	Fit to grow crops. (Lesson 1)
arbitration	A process by which conflict is resolved outside the court system by an unbiased person whose decision the parties agree to accept. (Lesson 13)
Articles of Confederation	The set of rules under which the United States was originally established; superseded by the Constitution in 1789. (Lesson 6)
ascend	To rise to power. (Lesson 2)
Aztec	A very powerful civilization once located under modern-day Mexico City. (Lesson 1)
Baby Boom	A huge population explosion in the United States after WWII. (Lesson 19)
Bank of the United States	A national bank established by Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton as a means of organizing national finances and promoting sound monetary policy. (Lesson 7)
Battle of Britain	An air war between Britain and Germany. (Lesson 18)
Bering Straight Theory	The theory that during the last Ice Age, or 12,000 years ago, people traveled from Asia to modern-day Alaska and into North and South America. (Lesson 1)
Bill of Rights	The first 10 Amendments to the Constitution, listing rights of American citizens. (Lesson 6)
black face	A face makeup used by white and black performers early in the 20th century to caricature black people. Burned cork ash was mixed with water to make the face completely black. (Lesson 17)
bootlegging	The illegal production or importation of alcohol. (Lesson 16)
border states	States on the dividing line between the North and the South, many of which had slavery but remained in the Union. (Lesson 10)
bullion	Uncoined metal; usually gold. (Lesson 13)
cession	A surrendering, as of territory, to another country by treaty. (Intro)
cheap money	Unlimited coinage. (Lesson 13)
checks and balances	A system in which one branch of government is limited in powers by the other branches. (Lesson 6)
chinampa	A floating island made of mud and used for farming. (Lesson 1)
Civil Rights Act	A bill passed by Congress in 1866 that aimed to protect blacks from discriminatory legislation; superseded by the 14th Amendment. (Lesson 11)
Cold War	A confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union that was not waged on a battlefield. (Lesson 18)
Compromise of 1850	A proposal by Henry Clay to avert sectional conflict by compromising between Northern and Southern demands. (Lesson 10)
concentration camp	A jailed work camp where Jewish people, as well as gypsies and the handicapped, were sent to work or to be exterminated. (Lesson 18)
Confederacy	The union formed by the southern states that seceded from the United States in 1861. (Lesson 10)
conquistador	A Spanish military explorer. (Lesson 2)
Constitution	The document, ratified in 1789, outlining the fundamental laws and principles of the United States. (Lesson 6)
Constitutional Convention	A meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 in which delegates from 12 states met to draft the Constitution. (Lesson 6)
cooperative	An enterprise or organization that is owned or managed jointly by those who use its facilities or services. (Lesson 13)
copperheads	Northerners who opposed the war. (Lesson 10)
cotton gin	A device for separating cotton fiber from seeds invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, creating an even greater demand for slaves to work in cotton production. (Lesson 8)
cotton is king	Phrase often used to describe the importance of cotton in Southern agriculture. (Lesson 8)
Credit Mobilier Scandal	One of many scandals during the Grant administration, this one involving subsidies to the Union Pacific Railroad. (Lesson 11)
decimate	To drastically reduce in number (Lesson 2)
Democratic Party	Andrew Jackson’s party; the successor to Jefferson’s Republican Party. (Lesson 8)
détente	The relaxation of tension between two powers; the policy towards the Soviet Union during the Nixon administration. (Lesson 21)
dictator	An individual who has absolute power over all aspects of governing a country. (Lesson 18)
effigy	An image or representation of a disliked person, usually for the purpose of burning. (Lesson 20)
eke	To scrape by; barely survive. (Lesson 12)
Emancipation Proclamation	Lincoln’s declaration that slaves in states fighting the Union would be free. (Lesson 10)
emancipation	Freedom from bondage or slavery. (Lesson 9)
embargo	A government policy prohibiting trade of certain goods between nations. (Lesson 21)
encomienda	A system which granted land to the Spanish explorers while forcing the indigenous peoples into slavery. (Lesson 2)
Era of Good Feelings	Period after the War of 1812 during which the country felt unified and prosperous. (Lesson 7)
Erie Canal	An artificial waterway, constructed in 1825, that linked New York City to the Great Lakes via the Hudson River. (Lesson 8)
excise tax	A tax on a particular good or service. (Lesson 7)
Fascism	A form of government that has centralized authority under a dictator, strict social and economic controls, and censorship. (Lesson 18)
Federalist Papers	A collection of influential essays in support of the Constitution, written by James Madison, John Jay, and Alexander Hamilton. (Lesson 6)
Federalist	A person in favor of the Constitution and a strong central government. (Lesson 6)
Final Solution	Hitler's plan to eliminate the Jews from the collective gene pool. (Lesson 18)
Fort Sumter	A federal fort in Charleston, South Carolina fired on by the Confederate troops, starting the Civil War. (Lesson 10)
Forty-Niner	The name given to settlers who headed West in 1849. (Lesson 9)
free silver	The political movement advocating the unlimited coinage of silver. (Lesson 11)
Freedmen’s Bureau	A government program established during Reconstruction to help former slaves. (Lesson 11)
Freeport Doctrine	The position, held by Stephen Douglas, that slavery could legally be barred from the territories if the territorial legislatures simply refused to enact the type of police regulations necessary to make slavery work. (Lesson 10)
Fugitive Slave Act	A law that allowed slave owners to go into free territories and capture runaway slaves; mandated harsh penalties for helping slaves escape. (Lesson 10)
glacier	A large sheet of ice that moves slowly down a slope or valley. (Lesson 1)
gold standard	The monetary standard under which the basic unit of currency is equal in value to and exchangeable for a specified amount of gold. (Lesson 13)
government bond	A certificate of debt issued by the United States government guaranteeing payment of the original investment plus interest by a specified date. (Lesson 7)
Great Compromise	Established a Senate with equal state representation and a House of Representatives with proportional representation. (Lesson 6)
greenbacks	Paper money distributed after the Civil War; the Greenback Party formed to help farmers with their mounting debts. (Lesson 13)
headright system	A promise of 50 acres of land to colonists willing to pay their way to Jamestown. (Lesson 3)
Holocaust	The era of history in which Hitler tried to exterminate the Jewish race. (Lesson 18)
impeach	To formally accuse an official of a crime, in preparation for removing him or her from office. (Lesson 11)
Imperialism	The acquisition and governmental control of territories. (Lesson 15)
Inca	A civilization in Peru that built terraced hillside fields for agriculture. (Lesson 1)
indigenous	Originating or occurring naturally in a particular region or environment. (Intro)
industrialization	The process by which societies are transformed from dependence on agriculture and handmade products to an emphasis on manufacturing and related industries. (Lesson 8)
inflation	A rise in prices that results from a decrease in the value of currency. (Lesson 21)
International Atomic Energy Commission	An organization created by the United Nations to monitor the world’s atomic weapons. (Lesson 19)
Irish Potato Famine	An 1847 famine in Ireland due to a disease among the potato crop that caused famine and forced millions of Irish to immigrate to the United States. (Lesson 8)
Jim Crow laws	Laws that the Southern states passed to restrict the civil rights of blacks. (Lesson 11)
Kansas-Nebraska Act	An 1854 bill that split Nebraska Territory into Kansas and Nebraska, with the expectation that the residents of each would decide the status of slavery. (Lesson 10)
laissez-faire	An economic doctrine that opposes governmental regulation of or interference in commerce. (Lesson 11)
Louisiana Purchase	America’s 1803 acquisition of France’s Louisiana Territory, which doubled the size of the United States. (Lesson 7)
lynching	The practice of “mob justice” in the South, where a person, usually black, accused of a crime was attacked by a mob and hanged, burned, or tarred-and-feathered in a public spectacle. (Lesson 16)
Marbury v. Madison	Supreme Court decision in 1803 that established the Court’s power to overturn federal laws. (Lesson 7)
Maya	A people that built city-states in the Yucatan Peninsula. (Lesson 1)
McCulloch v. Maryland	An 1819 Supreme Court decision that established the primacy of the federal government over the states. (Lesson 7)
mercantilism	An effort by the British government to solidify its power and gain wealth by strictly regulating trade and commerce. (Lesson 5)
merit system	A system of using competitive examinations and other non-political criteria as a basis for appointment to public office. (Lesson 11)
Middle Passage	The route across the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to the West Indies, specifically the voyage of Africans abducted to be sold into slavery. (Lesson 4)
Missouri Compromise	The first congressional compromise on slavery, passed in 1820-21; among other provisions, it prohibited slavery in the area of the Louisiana Purchase north of the southern border of Missouri. (Lesson7, 10)
Monroe Doctrine	Foreign policy doctrine announced by President Monroe in 1823, calling for an end of European interference in America. (Lesson 7)
muckraker	A journalist who wrote stories attempting to expose corruption and promote reform. (Lesson 14)
mugwumps	Pro-reform Republicans who deserted their party in 1884 to support Democrat Grover Cleveland for president. (Lesson 11)
nation	A distinct Native American cultural group. (Lesson 1)
nationalism	Intense loyalty and devotion to one’s nation. (Lesson 16)
NATO	An treaty among the United States, Canada, and ten Western European nations to create an alliance against the threat of communism. (Lesson 19)
New South	The parts of the South that left behind the "Old South" of slavery and plantations and embraced industrialization and modernization. (Lesson 11)
Northwest Ordinance	The law that established the Northwest Territory and set the precedent for incorporating new territories and states into the Union. (Lesson 6)
nullify	The refusal of a U.S. state to recognize or enforce a federal law within its boundaries. (Lesson 8)
Olmec	Mesoamerican people that lived between 1500 and 400 BCE. (Lesson 1)
on margin	The practice of borrowing money to buy stocks. (Lesson 17)
oral tradition	The preservation of history and myth by the retelling of stories to each generation. (Intro)
Panic of 1837	An economic depression partly caused by Andrew Jackson's banking policies that struck during the term of President Van Buren. (Lesson 8)
peculiar institution	A euphemism for slavery. (Lesson 10)
Plessy v. Ferguson	A landmark case that ruled that the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth amendment dealt with political and not social equality; legitimized the doctrine of "separate but equal". (Lesson 11)
primary source	An account from a direct participant in a given event. (Intro)
pro-choice	The opinion that every woman should have control over her own fertility. (Lesson 20)
pro-life	The belief that life begins at conception and abortion is wrong. (Lesson 20)
propaganda	The intentional spread of information (oftentimes only partially true) to sway public opinion on a particular issue. (Lesson 15)
protectorate	A "parental" relationship between a larger country and a smaller colony. (Lesson 15)
Quasi-War	A series of hostile engagements between French and American ships in 1798. (Lesson 7)
Reaganomics	"Trickle-down economics," i.e. the policy of giving tax cuts to big businesses in hopes that the economic benefits would "trickle down" to all levels of society. (Lesson 22)
Reconstruction	The period (1865-1877) during which the states that had seceded to the Confederacy were controlled by the federal government before being readmitted to the Union. (Lesson 11)
Removal Act of 1830	A law that made it legal to forcibly remove Native Americans from their land. (Lesson 8)
repartimiento	The process that granted land and slaves to Spanish landowners. (Lesson 4)
repatriate	To return to one's country or region of origin. (Lesson 17)
Republican Party	Also called the Democratic-Republican Party; founded by Thomas Jefferson, supported small farmers and opposed a large central government; ancestor to the modern Democratic Party. (Lesson 7)
Second Bank of the United States	Successor to the First Bank; established to control the financial chaos after the War of 1812; disbanded by President Andrew Jackson in 1833. (Lesson 7)
secondary source	A non-participant’s interpretation of an event. (Intro)
sectionalism	excessive devotion to the interests of one region of the country over the country as a whole. (Lesson 7)
separate but equal	The doctrine that separate facilities for blacks and whites were not inherently unequal; gave legal sanction to segregation and discrimination. (Lesson 11)
Shays’ Rebellion	An armed revolt, led by Massachusetts farmer Daniel Shays, protesting the debt forced on farmers by Boston merchants. (Lesson 6)
Sherman Anti-Trust Act	Law passed in 1890 allowing the government to break up monopolies; not implemented until 1904 because of opposition from the Supreme Court. (Lesson 11)
sod	Strips of mud and grass used to build houses in the Pioneer West. (Lesson 12)
Solid South	A phrase used to describe the dominance of the Democratic Party in the South after the Civil War. (Lesson 11)
sound money	The gold standard, favored by William McKinley, who won the 1896 Presidential election. (Lesson 13)
speakeasy	A Prohibition-era establishment that served alcohol illegally. (Lesson 16)
spoils system	The practice of awarding government offices to political supporters. (Lesson 8)
stagflation	An economic condition of high prices and low wages. (Lesson 21)
states’ rights	The doctrine that federal powers should be curtailed and returned to the states. (Lesson 8)
stock	A part ownership of a company. (Lesson 12)
strike	The refusal to work by a group of employees. (Lesson 13)
Tammany Hall	The popular name for the Democratic political organization in New York City; Tammany Hall influenced and at times dominated politics in New York for over a century, offering patronage jobs to its supporters in exchange for votes. (Lesson 11)
Tariff of Abominations	The name opponents gave to the Tariff of 1828. (Lesson 8)
tariff	A tax levied on goods imported into a country; in most instances, tariffs are intended to make imported goods more expensive and thus less competitive with domestic products. (Lesson 11)
The Gilded Age	The name referring to the opulence, or showy display of wealth, exhibited by the upper classes in late 19th century America. (Lesson 11)
The Souls of Black Folk	The most important work by African American leader W.E.B. DuBois. (Lesson 11)
theater of war	An area of land, sea, or air that is the location of war or war operations. (Lesson 5)
tight money	Limited supply of money. (Lesson 13)
Trail of Tears	The forced removal of the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminole tribes from their lands east of the Mississippi; many Indians died on the trip to their new lands in Oklahoma Indian Territory. (Lesson 8)
Treaty of Ghent	Treaty that ended the War of 1812. (Lesson 7)
Triangular Trade	Commerce linking Africa, the New World, and Europe; slaves were carried to America in exchange for sugar and tobacco, which were then transported to Europe. (Lesson 8)
trust	A group of companies that act in coordination to reduce competition and control prices. (Lesson 11)
Wade-Davis Bill	Congress' harsh plan for Reconstruction, which Lincoln declined to implement. (Lesson 11)
War of 1812	An inconclusive war between the United States and Britain, highly unpopular in New England but an important stimulus of national pride. (Lesson 7)
Whig Party	A party that originated as a coalition of opponents of Andrew Jackson, including southern states' rights advocates, western proponents of internal improvements, and northern supporters of the Bank of the United States; the Whigs disintegrated before the Civil War. (Lesson 8)
XYZ Affair	An incident between the United States and France that nearly led to a war. (Lesson 7)

 

Lesson 17: The Great Depression and the New Deal

Objectives learn about American culture during the 1920s and 1930s know the factors that led to the Great Depression learn about FDR's New Deal and how he helped out the American economy know the many new heroes of American culture

American Culture during the 1920s and 1930s Cultural trends in the 1920s and 1930s changed America forever. The major cultural changes were due to the growing influence of technology which brought artists, authors, and athletes more into the public eye. The increase in newspapers, newsreels, movies, and radio had a major impact on the American public. American pop-culture was born. Having access to information from New York City to the rural West shortened the distance between both geographic locations and life experiences. But life in cities differed greatly from that of rural areas. The arts were more accessible in cities. During this period, Martha Graham, a dancer and choreographer, helped introduce freedom and expression to the art form of modern dance. Literature also flourished in the 1920s and 1930s. For example, Willa Cather wrote about pioneer life in My Antonia, which deals with a romance in the Great Plains. Another writer, T.S. Eliot, contributed such works as The Waste Land, which criticized the machine age that he felt was causing negative changes in cities all over America. Musicians gained popularity through performances in cities, often traveling to New York City or Chicago to seek out fame. Many African American artists' careers evolved from the Harlem Renaissance, a time when black artists, writers, and musicians thrived. Issues of racial pride were emphasized by many artists of the day. Richard Wright wrote numerous novels, including Native Son, exploring the different experiences of African Americans in particular regions of the country. He stressed the importance of accurately portraying black characters to a white audience. This broke the stereotype of the humble, subservient, and humorous black man as exemplified by the popular "minstrel shows" of the day in which black and white performers put on "black face", and played roles designed to reinforce stereotypes and racism. Marian Anderson became a well known black opera singer. Zora Neale Hurston, author of Their Eyes Were Watching God, and poet Langston Hughes, opened the door for black authors to be taken seriously as literary figures. A movement evolved within African American culture that emphasized the idea of the “New Negro," which meant feeling a sense of pride at being African American and using assertiveness to exhibit this pride. Alain Locke was the first man to write about this concept. He wanted African Americans to become fully integrated into American society, and yet retain their cultural heritage. As a result of the “New Negro” concept, blacks became visible in this period in both politics and the arts. Marcus Garvey was a well-known proponent of the “back to Africa” movement. He encouraged black Americans to move to Africa where white-dominated racial segregation would no longer suppress blacks’ opportunities. Though few actually repatriated to Africa, over half a million African Americans followed Garvey’s teachings. Although his radical ideals weren't popular among other black leaders of the time, he is well remembered because of his ideas on "back to Africa." The idea of a “new woman” also arose during this time. This movement, led by advocates of women’s rights, centered on changing the status of women within society and within their personal relationships. The “new woman” was more economically independent than other women of the time. She was a career woman and would believe in the ideals of “new feminism,” proposed by Charlotte Perkins Gilman who supported the rejection of male domination by all women. Certain individuals and new consumer products helped with the promotion of the new woman idea. Gender relations within marriage were discussed in Middletown, a sociological study of a small American city by Robert and Helen M. Lynd. According to the study, women had begun to work outside of the home and men began to contribute to household chores. Also, products like canned goods, bread, and clothing could now be purchased ready-made, so women could buy these things instead of making them by hand. Middletown pointed out that the traditional employment opportunities for women were beginning to change. Women were no longer limited to jobs as domestic servants. Because of industrialization, they were able to expand their endeavors outside of the home. So many women chose to go to work in offices and factories that there was a shortage of domestic servants. One of the most memorable images of women from the 1920s is of "flappers," women who rejected the strictly defined dress and actions of women of the early 20th century. The "new woman" of the 1920s could drink and smoke in public and wear clothes that revealed the neck and the legs, rebellious actions for that time. Flapper-dresses made women’s figures look straight and boyish. The dresses allowed flappers to feel independent and more equal to men. Other feminists did not think flappers went as far as they could have. The National Woman’s Party, led mostly by Alice Paul, worked through the legal system to try to make gender discrimination illegal in all ways. After the 1920 passage of the 19th Amendment (women’s suffrage), Paul worked for the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. Though the Equal Rights Amendment passed through both houses of Congress, it was never approved by two-thirds of the states, and has therefore never been added to the Constitution. Native Americans also made advancements in the fight for their rights during this time. In 1924, Congress passed the Indian Citizenship Act which granted citizenship to many Native Americans. Unfortunately, some states refused to allow Native Americans to vote after this act. To further organize for their cause, Native Americans formed the National Council of American Indians in 1926.

American Heroes With the invention of radio came radio broadcasts of sporting events over the airwaves. Football and baseball games could now be heard, play by play, by listeners located far from the actual events. Some major sports heroes had their reign in the 1920s. A popular football player during this time was Red Grange, known as the “Galloping Ghost,” who some say is the greatest football player of all time. In baseball, Babe Ruth became a legend earning the nickname the “king of home runs.” He retired with a then-record high of 60 runs in a season. Native American Jim Thorpe became an Olympian, winning both the pentathlon and decathlon in 1912. He played college football, leading his team to national victory, and then went on to play Major League baseball for 6 years, all the while leading his football team to world championships. By the end of his career in 1928, Thorpe had become a major American sports hero. In 1936, Jesse Owens, a black American, won four gold medals at the Berlin Summer Olympics. With the airplane only a decade old, many pilots pushed the envelope throughout the 1920s and 1930s. Charles Lindbergh made the first nonstop solo flight from New York to Paris in 1927. Around the same time, Richard E. Byrd made the first polar flights, to the North and South poles. Amelia Earhart, a famous female pilot, became the first woman to make a solo crossing of the Atlantic in 1932, and in 1935, she was the first person to make a solo crossing of the Pacific. Two years later, in an attempt to be the first female pilot to fly around the world, Earhart was lost at sea on the last leg of the 29,000 mile trip.

More Technological Advances Besides the radio, many other important technological advances were made during the ‘20s and ‘30s. Edward L. Thorndike advanced education during this time by devising an intelligence test to assist in evaluating the educational process. His work was innovative and became the foundation of modern intelligence tests. In the food industry, Clarence Birdseye developed a method of quick-freezing food that changed the preservation of fruits and vegetables from that point on. His contributions led the way to the multi-billion dollar food industry we have today.

The Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression During the 1920s, Americans invested in stocks and bonds in staggering numbers hoping to become instantly wealthy. Many people did not have the cash on hand, so they invested their life savings and borrowed money, a practice known as investing "on margin," in which people buy stock with money loaned to them. On October 29, 1929, the stock market hit bottom. This day, remembered as “Black Tuesday,” is the single worst day in the history of the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). The market had become shaky and many who had invested lost everything. There are stories of stock brokers who jumped from windows because they were financially ruined. The crash spurred a massive selling spree as people scrambled to sell all of their stock and salvage their money. Businesses collapsed, banks closed their doors, and investors and brokers could do nothing to save their investments. Thousands of workers lost their jobs and an era known as the Great Depression began. Herbert Hoover, elected president in 1928, did not fully grasp the seriousness of the Great Depression. In early 1930, he declared that the was worst over. Soon after the economy took yet another blow as the unemployment rate rose, increasing numbers of businesses and banks failed, and many people lost their homes. By 1932, approximately 12 million Americans were unemployed. Soup and bread lines were present throughout the country and schools closed when there was no money to pay teachers. Hoover failed to propose any government solution, and the crisis worsened. The American people grew disillusioned by the lack of help from the president and government. Many poverty stricken shantytowns, dubbed "Hoovervilles," grew as more and more people lost their jobs and homes.

FDR and the New Deal In 1932 Hoover ran against Franklin Delano Roosevelt, the former Governor of New York. Roosevelt’s popular slogan, “Happy Days Are Here Again,” promised relief to the people and governmental efforts to end the depression. He won the election and in his inaugural address, heard by millions on radio, he made his famous proclamation “that the only thing we have to fear, is fear itself. Primary Source Roosevelt's First Inaugural Address President Hoover, Mr. Chief Justice, my friends, This is a day of national consecration, and I am certain that my fellow Americans expect that on my induction into the Presidency I will address them with a candor and a decision which the present situation of our nation impels. This is pre-eminently the time to speak the truth, the whole truth, frankly, and boldly. Nor need we shrink from honestly facing conditions in our country today. This great nation will endure as it has endured, will revive and will prosper. So first of all let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we have to fear is fear itself--nameless, unreasoning, unjustified terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into advance... This nation asks for action, and action now. Our greatest possible task is to put people to work. This is no unsolvable task if we face it wisely and courageously. It can be accomplished in part by direct recruiting by the government itself, treating the task as we would treat the emergency of a war, but at the same time, through this employment accomplishing greatly needed projects to stimulate and reorganize the use of our natural resources.... It is to be hoped that the normal balance of executive and legislative authority may be wholly adequate to meet the unprecedented task before us, But it may be that an unprecedented demand and need for undelayed action may call for temporary departure from that normal balance of public procedure.... I shall ask Congress for the one remaining instrument to meet the crisis--broad executive power to wage a war against the emergency as great as the power that would be given me if we were in fact invaded by a foreign foe.... We do not distrust the future of essential democracy. The people of the United States have not failed. In their need they have registered a mandate that they want direct, vigorous action.... In this dedication of a nation we humbly ask the blessing of God. May He protect each and every one of us! May He guide me in the days to come. Samuel I. Rosenmanm ed., The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, New York: Random House, vol.2. Roosevelt was quite a change from the conservative Hoover. For example, Hoover opposed direct federal relief for the people, whereas Roosevelt believed such aid was necessary. He asked Congress for expanded presidential powers to wage war on the economic crisis. His new governmental policies and programs became known as The New Deal. The three general aims of Roosevelt's New Deal program were relief, recovery, and reform. The New Deal sought to give relief to the unemployed; hasten the speed of recovery for business, commerce, agriculture, and labor; measure specific weaknesses in the economic system. Congress started by passing an Emergency Banking Act that helped put 12,000 banks back in business. Many New Deal programs followed: The Federal Housing Administration (FHA), which guaranteed home loans The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which employed young men to build public works projects for the government The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), which offered cash payments to the unemployed and put people to work The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which guaranteed the savings of bank depositors up to $2,500 During the first hundred days of the FDR administration, government assistance programs helped get the country moving again. Public works projects created thousands of new jobs and created new infrastructure, like the Lincoln Tunnel and the Golden Gate Bridge. The New Deal educated the country, giving everyone a better understanding about the consequences of taxation, debt, and spending. Many of the programs established during this time are still in place today and have helped the country avoid another Great Depression. The Golden Gate Bridge Other examples of change in the government included Roosevelt’s “black cabinet.” His wife, Eleanor, wisely advised him to integrate his administration. For the first time, the President hired blacks for various mid-level government positions. Mary McLeod Bethune was one woman appointed to the cabinet. The members of this unofficial cabinet met regularly to discuss ways to advance the interests of African Americans as well as to ensure that black Americans were not excluded from the benefits provided through the various New Deal relief programs. Roosevelt had a great amount of personal charm and his cheerful personality was a significant asset in his attempt to lead the nation out of the despair of the depression. He exuded confidence in all his actions, and his exceptional speaking voice was very effective in getting across ideas to the people in his "fireside chats" over the radio. Just like Teddy Roosevelt, he was a controversial president. His supporters idolized him and his enemies hated him. He had such a hold on the people that they elected him President four times, more than any other president.